SMITHSONI. 



riTUT 



1 . 



S N .. 



i> I 1 J O U 



^ O i\I. 



PRIMITIVE AMERICAN ARMOR. 



BY 



WALTER HOUGH, Ph. D., 

Atsisluiti Cu>Li.ti}r ,)/' thiL Depaylintnt of Etknolofjy, 



From the Report of the U, S. National Museura for 1893, pages 635-^51, 



WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNME^T PRINTING OFFICE. 
1895. 



SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. 

UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. 



PRIMITIVE AMERICAN ARMOR. 



m 



WALTER HOUGH, Ph. D., 

Assisiant Curator of the Department 0/ Ethnology, 



From the Report of the U. S. Nationnl Museum for 1893, pages 625-651, 
with plates 1-22, ami fijjures 1-5. 



WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 
1895. 






, - 1904 
h. of D« 



• * 



• • • 



• * « « ■» 



PRIMITIVE AMERICAN ARMOR. 



BY 



WALTER IIOUGPT, Ph. T>. 

Department of Ethnology, U. S. National Museum. 



H. Mis. 184, pt. 2 40 625 



PKI.MITIVH AMERICAN' ARMOR 



By Waltkk HorcJii, I'li. ])., 
Department of Ethnology, U. «S. Xational Museum. 



"(.'ornelius Tacitua doth pl«'asantly (inip and Jost at tli« mon of war of our ancieut Gaules, so armed, 
only to luaintaiiie tluiMseh es, as they that liavo no imraiis oitlier to be otiViided or to raise tlieiu- 
selves being overtbrowne." Montaigne, Of The Parthian Arnn-s. 

Ill the U. S. National Museum there are many examples of primitive 
American armor. These defensive weai)ons may be classed as parrying- 
armor, or the shield, and body armor, for the defense of the head, 
trunk, legs, and arms. The subject will be treated under form, mate- 
rial, structure, decoration, function, mythology, and distribution. 

I. Shield. 

The shield is the first defensive weapon both in point of time and of 
usefulness. While the shield on first thought may seem merely 
intended as a covering for the vulnerable points of the body, its impor- 
tance is far greater in parrying. Therefore, with this idea in view, the 
shield may be as simple as the plain parrying stick of the Australians, 
which begins the classic series of Lane Fox. 

If one bears in mind that defensive weapons are the concomitants of 
offensive weapons, the development of the shield becomes clear. Thus, 
where missile weapons are used, the i)arrying stick is a natural and 
adequate defense. Where missiles are given greater velocity with the 
throwing strap, the throwing stick, or the bow, the shield must cover 
the body better. It Avould seem that the broad shield is the counter- 
growth of the bow. 

The circular shield characterizes the Western Hemisphere. The 
NtU'th American shield is convex and from 12 to 2G inches in diameter. 
The Mexican area is perhajis an excei)tion, though the Codices almost 
invariably depict the round shield, and the surviving Mexican shields, 
on which Mrs. Zelia Nuttall is authority, are circular.* The Naliua 
shield was *' sometimes rounded and sometimes oval, sometimes rounded 
on the lower side." Some shields were of an ordinary size; others were 
intended to cover the entire body and were constructed so that when 
not in use they could be folded up and carried under the arin.t Lalitau 
conveys the idea that the Iroquois had shields of different shapes.}: 

As to material, nearly all American shields are made of thick raw- 
hide, that of the buffalo and elk being most available. Shields worked 

*Nuttall, Zelia, ou Ancient Mexican Shields. Internat. Arehi\ . iiir Ethnologie, 
Leideu, Vol. v, pt. i, 1892, \)\i. 34-53. 

t Bancroft, H. H., Native Races of the Pacific, Vol. ii, p. iOT. 

t Lafitau, Mceurs des Sativagcs Ani''ri<piain.s, \'ol. ii, ji. 197, Paris, 1724. 

627 



628 



REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1893. 



out from a single piece of wood, like those of the Dyaks are found on 
the Kio Maraiion in South America (fig. 1).* 

The Virginia ladians used ^^ targets made of barcks."t The Nava- 
joes made a shield of cedar rods twined together with cord (Oat. ^o, 
8401, U.S.KM.), which may be connected with the rod armor of the 
Athapascans and the similar cane shields of the Nahuas of Mexico. 

Among the Oeris and Chicoratos of New Mexico, ^'Another kind of 
shield was made of small laths closely interwoven with cords, in such a 
manner that, when not required for use, it could be shut up like a fan, 
and was carried under the arm." f 

" In Tobasco and along the coast, tortoise shells inlaid with gold, 




Fig. 1. 

WOODEN SHIELD. 

Cat. No. 75881 U. S. NT. M. Peru. Gift jf the Trocadero Museum, Pans. 

silver, or copper were commonly used as shields," § as the Malay spec- 
imen from Singapore. Eeeds, grass, hides, or 'nequen-cloth coated with 
India rubber served to protect an Aztec common soldier. || The Pue- 
blo tribes ^'carried round shields of basketry, of heavily and closely 
netted cotton, or of thick rawhide, symbolically painted." 1] 

* Wooden shield. — Flat disk of light wood, thicker in the center, forming a step. 
Two bent wood handles wrapped with bark are sprung into holes in the rear of the 
shield. Decorated with triangular figures in red and yellow, resembling tents. Diam- 
eter, 33 inches. (Cat. No. 75881, U. S. N. M. Indians of the Upper Amazon (Rio 
Maranon) Peru. Gift of the Trocadero Museum, Paris). 

t Harlot, Thomas, Virginia, p. 24. 

t Bancroft, op. cit.,Yo}. i, p. 579. 

^ Bancroft, H. H., op. oit., Vol. ii, p. 407. 

II Bancroft, loc. cit. 

IJCushing, F. H., article " Pueblos, " in Johnson's Cyclopedia, from advanced 
sheets in new edition, now in press. 



PRIMITIVE AMERICAN ARMOR. 



629 



The coustruction of the North Aiiirrican shield is given in detail by 
George Catliii. The inoenioiis 
process of contracting and ^^^ ^\'^^\[,J' 



hardeuing the hide by tire was 



-^^^--^^.v 



common. 




Sioux shield made of the skin of 

the biiHalo's neck, hardened with 

glue extracted from the hoofs and 

joints of the same animal. The pro- 
cess of "smoking the shield" is a 

very curious as well as important 

one, in their estimation. For this 

purjjose a young man about to con- 
struct for him a shield digs a hole 

of 2 feet in depth in the ground, 

and as lar<j!;e in diameter as he 

designs to make his shield. In this 

he builds a fire, and over it, a few 

inches higher than the ground, be 

stretches the rawhide horizontally 

over the fire, with little pegs driven 

through holes made near the edges 

of the skin. The skin is at first 
twice as lar<^e as the size of the 
re(iuire<l shield; but having got his 
])articular and best friends (who are 
invited on this occasion) into a ring 
to dance and sing about it and solicit 
the Great Si>irit to instill into it 
the power to protect him harmless 
against his enemies, he spreads over 
it the glue which is rubbed and dried 
in, as the skin is heated; and a 
second busily drives other and other 
pegs, inside of those in the ground, 
as they are gradually giving away 
and being pulled nj) by the contrac- 
tion of the skin. By this curious 
process, which is most dexterously 
done, the skin is kept tight whilst 
it contracts to one-half of its size, 
taking up the glue and increasing 
in thickness until it is rendered as 
thick and hard as required (and his 
friends have pleaded long enough 
to make it arrow, and almost ball, 
proof), when the dance ceases and 
the fire is put out. When it is 
cooled and cut into the shape that 
he desires, it is often painted with 
his medicine or totem uj^on it, the 
figure of an eagle, an owl, a buflalo, 
or other animal, as the case may be, 
which he trusts will guard and i)ro- 
tect him from harm. It is then fringed with eagles' quills or other ornaments he 



ABAPABOE SHIELD. 

Cat, No. 129871, V. S. N. M. Dakota. Collected bv H. M. Creel. 



630 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1893. 

may have chosen and slung with a broad leather strap that crosses his breast. 
These shields are carried by all the warriors in these regions, for their protection 
in battles, which are almost invariably fought from their horses' backs* 

The shield was invariably held on the left arm,f usually by a simple 
thong of buckskin attached to the interior. Wooden handles, believed 
to have belonged to Pima Indian shields, were found in a cave with 
war clubs on Superstition Mountain in Arizona, by Dr. E. Palmer. 
(Cat. No. 76028, U. S. ]N". M.) 

It is the custom of most tribes to put one or more covers of dressed 
buckskin over the shield, the covers being decorated.| (See. pl.i and 
fig. 2.) 

The decoration of the North American shield forms one of the most 
fruitful sources for the religious beliefs and practices of the Indians.§ 

The decoration was inspired by a revelation through a dream, follow- 
ing among the Crows tlie terrible initiation ceremony and among all 
tribes following an ordeal. The protection of the shield has largely 
become fetichistic and in many cases the survival of this ancient means 
of defense has been brought about by its cult relations. 

The warrior fraternities of the Moki and Zuhi tribes have an elabo- 
rate ceremonial of the shield. || In the Moki ceremony, held at the 

* Catlin, George, North American Indians, 7th ed. Lond., 1848. Vol. i, p. 241. 
t See the paper by Mr. Gushing on Manual Goucepts., American Anthropologist, V, 
1892, p. 290. 

I DESCRIPTION OF FIGURE 2 AND PLATE I. 

Fig. 2, shield. — Made of rawhide with cover of muslin symbolically painted in 
green, yellow, red, and black. The background above is yellow and below green. 
The figures are on the yellow portion and represents two dragon flies, the sun and 
moon, an owl, and a circle in red outlined with green. Two eagle claws are fastened 
at opposite sides. A bunch of eagle feathers is fastened at the upper edge, and from 
it depends a flannel band with rows of large eagle feathers having horsehair cemented 
to their ends. The thongs for holding have disappeared ; there remains a thong for 
suspension. Diameter 18 inches (Gat. No. 129871, U. S. N. M. Arapahoe Indians, 
Dakota. Gollected by H. M. Creel.) 

Plate I, shield ivith 2 covers. — The shield proper is of hardened buffalo hide of con- 
vex form, plaiu in front with four perforations through which the thong forming the 
handle is passed, (lower figure). Tothe triangular handle are attached long cow tails, 
(figure to right). The inner cover is of buckskin, gaudily decorated, and edged 
with a band of flannel bordered with eagle feathers and having a woven band hang- 
ing down, (figure to left; back view of same, upper figure to the right). The outer 
cover, which is to protect the inner cover and the feathers are also painted and 
whitened with pipeclay. Four charms are attached to it, viz, a curl of cow's tail, 
an eagle feather, and two tufts of shredded cloth with a bit of brass chain. The 
covers are gashed around the edge and supplied with a gathering string for securing 
the cover tightly over the shield. The complete shield is shown in the upper figure 
to the left. A third painted cover for this shield has been discovered. Diameter of 
shield proper, 15^ inclies ; of shield with covers, 17^^ inches. (Gat. No. 8443, U. S. N. M. 
Comanche Indians, Fort Griffin, Texas. Collected by Dr. H. McElderry, U. S. A.) 

§ Mr. James Mooney is preparing a paper upon this branch of the subject. Mrs. 
Nuttall has treated on this aspect of the Mexican shield; loc. cit., ante, p. 1. 

II See Zuni Fetiches, Gushing, 2d An. Rept. Bu. EthnoL, Pis. x, xi, p. 40. 



Report o' National Museum, 1893.— Hough. 



Plate 1, 




Rawhide Shield with Covers. 

Cat. No. 8448. U. S. N. M. 



PRIMITIVE AMERICAN ARMOR. 631 

winter sol.^tico by tlio wairior societies, the sun is repn'sonted by a 
shield, and attack and defense is «4rai)liieally dramatized. The shiehls 
of the sun warrior fraternities are decorated with the totems of the 
individual societies. A description of this ceremony will soon be pub- 
lished by Dr. J. Walter Fewkes. 

The various feathers, hoofs and horns, and skins of animals, etc., 
hun<i- to shields, are also personal fetiches. 

The distribution of the shield shows that most of the American 
tribes possessed the shield, and a majority appear to have had no other 
weapon of defense. There is strong presumption, however, that the 
use of body and shield armor was widespread in America, as historical 
notices show. 

Charlevoix, writing of the Iroquois, observes that while the western 
tribes use bucklers of buffalo hide, "it is pretty surprising that other 
Indian nations never use them."* Latitau and the earlier mission- 
aries, however, credit the Iroquoian people Avith the shield in the 
following words: 

Tbeir shields were of ozier or bark covered with one or many pcaux passeex; there 
are some made of very thick skin. They had them of all sizes and all sorts of figures. t 

Some South American tribes who use body armor are said to be 
unacquainted with the shield. Likewise the Eskimo seem to be desti- 
tute of this weapon. 

There are probablj^ fifty American shields in the National Museum, 
some collected as early as 1830. Several have been handed down from 
father to son for a period of sixty-five years. 

These shields are from the tribes of the western portion of the con- 
tinent and include the Crows, Sioux, Comanches, Kiowas, Navajoes, 
Utes, Apaches, Pimas, Zunis, Mokis, etc. 

II. Body Armor. 

The aboriginal armor of North America was intended to protect the 
vital organs and to allow free movement of the limbs. The form 
assumes that of a sleeveless jacket, coat, or wide band going around 
the trunk, suspended from the vshoulders. The selection of defensive 
materials and their adaptation to defensive covering for the body form 
an interesting study in native invention, while the evidence in North 
America of the migration of inventions awakens no less interest. 
Thus we find that at the period of the disuse of armor by the aborig- 
ines there were six types of body armor found on the North Amer- 
ican Continent and contiguous regions, viz: 

Plate armor. — Eows of overlapping idates, perforated and lashed. 
Eskimo and Chukchis. 

* Charlevoix, F. X. de, Journal of a Voyage to Xorth America. Vol. i, p. 338. 

Lond., 1761. 

t Latitau, loc. cit., ii, p. 197. 



632 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1893. 

Slat armor. — Wooden slats twined together. Sitkans, Shastas^ 
Iroquois, Virginia Indians. 

Eod armor. — Wooden rods twined together. Aleuts, Sitkans, Colum 
bia Eiver tribes, Klamaths, Hupas, Iroquois, Virginia Indians, etc. 

Band armor. — Bands of skin arranged in telescoping fashion. 
Chukchis. 

Sldn armor. — Coats of hardened hide. Tlingits, Haidas, Hupas, 
Chinooks, Kavajoes, Mohawks, Shoshones, Pawnees, Comancbes, 
etc. 

Cotton-padded armor. — Mexicans, Isthmians, and Peruvians. 

Three well-defined areas, including the above-mentioned types of 
North American body armor, will be now considered, viz: 

(1 ) Bering Strait area, the American shore of Bering Sea, and the 
islands as far north as Cape Prince of Wales, inhabited by the Eskimo, 
and the Asiatic side, inhabited by the Coast Chukchis. (Plate 
armor.) 

(2) Western area, extending from Sitka through northern California 
and the central basin .to Mexico. (Slat, rod, and skin armor.) 

(3) Eastern area, extending from southeastern Canada to Virginia, 
inhabited by Algonkian and Iroquoian tribes. (Slat, or rod, and skin 
armor.) 

The first two areas are known by actual specimens, while the third 
area is historical. In the interior of the continent, according to his- 
torical notices, several stocks used armor. There is, therefore, suffi- 
cient testimony to show that if not universal the use of armor was at 
least general among the North American tribes. 

1. BERING STRAIT AREA. 

The National Museum possesses a number' of examples of Eskimo- 
Chukchis plate armor from Cape Prince of Wales, Diomede Island, St. 
Lawrence Island, Alaska, and Cape Wankarem, Siberia. 

The most perfect specimens are from Cape Prince of Wales and Dio- 
mede Island. (See pis. 2 and 3.) * 

* DESCBIPTION OF PLATE 2. 

Fig. i, plate armor. — Made of three rows of walrus-ivory plates, averaging 1 inch 
in width and 6 inches in length. Each plate contains 6 holes, through which pass 
rawhide thongs, thus lashing the plates together. These plates are slightly imbri- 
cated, as are also the different rows, so as to ward off more effectually the weapons 
of the enemy. The lower row contains 43 plates, and the middle 38. The upper 
row consists of two sections; one containing 10 plates, protecting the breast, the 
other 8 plates, protecting the upper part of the back. A rawhide strap passes over 
the shoulders and supports the armor. This armor very closely resembles that of 
Japan. Length when spread out, 44 inches, (Cat. No. 153491, U.S.N.M. Eskimo 
of Cape Prince of Wales, Alaska. Collected by H. R. Thornton). 

Fig. 2, plate armor. — Fragment consisting of 9 iron plates similar to those on 
Japanese armor, and bound with three lashings of rawhide. This speciman was 



Report of National Museum, 1893 Hough 



Plate 2. 




PRIMITIVE AMERICAN ARMOR. G33 

This type of armor consists of small. Hat, oblong jilatcs of ivory or 
boiK* i)ierced near the ed<;es with from 4 to (i or mort* holes. They are 
lasiied in series with rawhide thongs passing throngh the holes, form- 
ing what is known as the '^ clove hitch." The longer edges of the 
plates are chamfered to admit of overlapi>ing and curving the armor 
around the body; it could thus be rolled up in small comi)ass when not 
in use. 

The coat would be formed of from 3 to 5 imbricating rows of ])lates 
so constructed, having offsets under the armpits and straps for the 
shoulders. Sometimes a yoke of skin litting the neck and shoulders 
formed a sui)i)ort for the rows of plates, as in specimens from St. Law- 
rence Island. The coat is fastened at the back, being tied with thongs 
or having a toggle and loo}). 

Iron armor plates were dug up in a marsh at Cape Prince of Wales 
(see pi. 3), and plates of iron and copper were found on St. Lawrence 
Island. 

There is an interesting statement from Lisiansky, who wrote his voy- 
ages in 1805, that the Tlingits,on the introduction of irou and tirearms, 
adopted a new form of protection, consisting of a buckskin strip around 
the neck with iron plates attached pendant down the breast. 

Nordenskkjold figures a suit of armor like that of the Eskimo from 
the Chukchis.* In the Museum there are 4 plates of fossil ivory from 
the Chukchis of Cape Wankarem. 

The hoop or band armor mentioned as type 4 (pi. 4, fig. 2) is found 
only on the Siberian side of this area and, as well as the plate armor, 
recalls well-known forms in Japan. This hoop armor is interesting as 
showing the reproduction of plate armor ty])es in skin, being made of 
horizontal bands of sealskin instead of rows of ivory plates, the rings 
telescoping together when the armor is not in use. This type may be 
compared with the banded mail of the Middle Ages, about which there 

dog up iu a bog near where the ivory armor on this plate was found. Length of 
each plate, 4| inches; width, 1^ inches. (Cat. No. 153492, U.S.N.M. Eskimo of Cape 
Prince of Wales, Alaska. Collected by H. R. Thornton). 

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE 3. 

Plate armor. — Made of five imbricating rows of ])late.s of walrus ivory of unequal 
size in the different rows, pierced with from 6 to 13 holes, lashed with sealskin thongs. 
The vertical edges of the plates are chamfered. The upper row has 40, 3 by IJ 
inches; second row, 49 plates, 5 by 1 inch; third row, 28 plates, 3^ by If inches; 
fourth row, 31 plates, 6 by 1^ inches; tifth row, 16 plates, 6 by 1^ inches. Two 
pointed plates cut from a tusk are laslied to one side, forming a clasp. This armor 
was wrapped around the body after the manner of a cuirass and is said to have been 
an efticacious protection against arrows. In the form, lashing, and adjustment of 
the plates it is identical with certain types of Japanese armor. AVidth extended, 49 
inches; height, 24 inches. (Cat. No. 64290, U.S.N.M. Eskimo of Diomede Island, 
Alaska. Collected by E. W. Nelson). 

* Nordenskjold, A. E., Voyage of the Verja, ii, p. 478. 



634 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1893. 

has been mucli discussion.* The upper portion of this war panoply 
(pi. 4,t fig. 1) is unique. 

It serves as a shield and resembles the neck fender of the Kingsmill 
Island armor; designed, without doubt, to protect the warrior from 
attack in the rear, a common occurrence in all savage warfare. 

The whole armor is very heavy and clumsy. The method of wearing 
the suit is shown in plate 5.j: Captain Hooper says: 

Their war spears and those used, in hunting bears are made of steel, with a handle 
about 6 feet long. The blade is kept very sharp and highly polished. These weapons 
are often beautifully inlaid with brass ornamented figures, and are purchased from 
the Russian traders at Gazhaga.^ 

The Chukchis of Plover Bay formerly wore a cuirass made of long- 
strips of baleen, reaching from the neck to the middle of the thigh. 
The thickest baleen was not selected for making the armor. The 
strips were arranged vertically, en echelon^ and tied through perfora- 
tions on the edges. Over the joints were applied other strips of 
whalebone, as in a thatch fastened by thongs, passing through perfora- 
tions at their edges and in the middle of the foundation strips. Owing 
to the material and construction this armor was somewhat elastic. 
When spread out it was in shape of a band with cuts below the 
armpits and having suspending straps going over the shoulders, resem- 
bling the Hupa armor. (See pi. 15.) The coat was tied at the back 
with cords, requiring the assistance of another person. 

The Chukchis told my informant, Capt. E. P. Herendeen, that this 

* Hewitt, Johii, Ancient armor, p. 270; also hoop armor, id. p. 256. 

t DESCRIPTION OF PLATE 4. 

Fig. 1, armor. — Upper portion of 2437. Made of sea-lion skin stretched over 
plates of wood. Back, shield shaped, formed of 2 vertical pieces of three-eighth_ 
inch hoard lashed together with whalebone and covered with hide, which extends 
continuously over the wings, being a very large skin turned over and sewed on 
the upper edge. The wings consist of 4 wooden plates on one side and 5 on tho 
other, growing shorter toward the front and terminating on the left side in a section 
without wooden lining. The plates are movable, the hide being creased at the joints, 
and in the crease is laid a rounded thong which is held at intervals by loops of whale- 
bone passing through the edges of the plates. On the back are two whalebone tog- 
gles for attachment to the lower portion. A more clumsy contrivance than this fen- 
der can scarcely be imagined. Width, 72 inches; height, 28 inches. (Cat. No. 2436, 
U. S.N.M. Chukchis, Eastern Siberia. Collected by Commodore John Rogers, U. S. N. 

Fig. 2, hoop armor. — Made of seven bands of sea-lion skin, 5^ inches wide, doubled 
and whipped together at the edges. These bands are connected by heavy thongs 
and hang in an enlarging series, like an inverted telescope drinking cup, from a 
frame of whalebone covered with hide. The free ends of the bands overlap in front. 
A square breastplate of doubled hide protects the neck. This armor is the lower 
portion.of No. 2436. Diameter, 36 inches; height, 20 inches. (Cat, No. 2437, U.S.N.M. 
Chukchis, Eastern Siberia. Collected by Commodore John Rogers, U. S. N. 

t DESCRIPTION OP PLATE 5. 

Chukchis warrior and family. — From an aquarelle made by W. Alexander in 1797, 
showing, after the interpretation of the artist, the method of wearing the armor 
figured in pi. 4. 

$ Cruise of the Corwin, 1881, Washington, 1884, p. 31. 



Report of National Museum, 1893. — Hough. 



Plate 3. 





Eskimo Plate Armor. 

Fig^. 1. Front view. 
Fiff. 2. Back view. 



Report of National Museum, 1893.— Hough. 



Plate 4. 





Chukchis Hoop Armor, 

Fig. 1. Upper porti .^n. Tat. No. 24m. U. S. N. M. 
Fig. 2. Lower portion. Cat. No. 243:. U. S. N. M. 



Report of National Museum, 1893.— Hough. 



Plate 5. 




Chukchis wearing Hoop Armor. Plover Bay. 



PRIMITIVE AMERICAN ARMOR. 



635 




armor was used in Gfoinii' over to trade witli tlie hostile Eskimo of St. 
Lawrence Island, which was dan*i'erous and compelled sleepless caution. 
Capt. Herendeen also saw the band armor (pi. 4) ann)ng the Chukchis. 
Ivory was not observed by Capt. Herendeen, as that material is very 
scarce on the Asiatic side; but, no doubt, the nuiterials for phite armor 
were procured by barter with 
Eskimo. In any event, fossil 
ivory plate armor was made 
by the Chukchis. 

Driftwood is also very rare 
on the Siberian coast, while 
on the islands and American 
shore it is abundant. The 
quest for this indispensable 
material must have been a 
strong incentive for the 
Asiatic mif^rants to cross the 
straits. 

As far as known the Chuk- 
chis did not use either hel- 
mets or shields. 

Of interest in comparivson 
with the Eskimo Chukchis 
armor is that used by the 
Giliaks of Siberia. This is 
composed of plates of iron 
lashed to«iether (fig. 3).* 

They also wear an ingeniously constructed conical helmet with a neck 
cover. The Giliak coat of plaited thongs, figured in the same work, 
does not occur in America, but has its counterpart in the cocoanut-fiber 
armor of the Polynesians and the plaited armor of the Malays. 

The Kamtschadales have bows, arrows, spears, and a coat of mail 
Blade of mats or plaited thongs.t 

The Kalmucks have coats of mail bought from their neighbors.f 
They use lances. 

Descending the coast toward Japan, which seems to be the origin of 
the i)late armor ranging from that country into the American continent, 
we notice that the Colletske make use of a leather coat covered with 
plates of iron about G inches long and a pot-shaped helmet of smaller 
plates having neck covers. 

*Schrenck, L. v., Reisen uud Forschnngen ina Amur-Lande, 1854-'56. St. Peters- 
burg, 1891. PL XLiv. 

Description of Jig. 5.— Hehiiet aiul detail of armor of the Giliaks of the Aruoor, Siberia. 
Ill the perforations and arrangement this armor resembles the armor of the Eskimo. 

Drawing from lieisen und Forschiingen im Amur-Lande, 1854-'56, by Dr. Leopold V. 
Schrenck. St. Petersburg, 1891. 

f Grieve. Hist, of Kamtschatka, Gloucester, 1764, p. 202 

t Pallas, 1, p. 143. 



Fig. 3. 

GILIA*K HELMET AND BODY AUMOR. SIBEKIA. 
Alter Schrenck. 



636 KEPOKT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1893. 

2. WESTERN AREA. 

In the western area the slat type of wooden armor seems to be cen- 
tral among the Koluschans in the north, while the rod type runs south- 
ward and is central among tbe Tiune of British Columbia. 

The slat armor has some resemblances to the Eskimo coat, and might 
be regarded as the working out of the plate-armor idea in a region 
where wood is abundant and twined weaving common. 

The slat coat or coat of slats and rods combined is always made in 
two sections, one for the front and the other for the back, while the rod 
coat is in a single piece. 

Plate 6 * shows the front and back of the slat coat, and Plates 7 
and 8* show the combined rod and slat armor. These specimens 
are very old. The woodwork shows great skill, especially the inter- 
locking joinery at the edges. The hardest wood procurable was 
selected, and usually sinew cord was employed to join the slats. 
Plate 9,* taken from Niblack after Lisiansky, shows the parts and 
method of wearing the slat armor. 

* DESCRIPTIONS OF PLATES 6-9. 

Plate 6, slat armor. — Made of 32 slats of cedar and other wood woven together 
by tine weaving of fine sinew and other cord. A Ibaud of weaving of 3 inches width 
is carried along the front at the top and the weaving is continued downward in two 
places, meeting a band crossing the bottom and forming a geometrical figure. 
The middle series of slats, 8 in number, extends below the other 4 inches, 3 of which 
are intact, while 2 on either side are united, forming a swallowtail and allowing the 
free bending of the thighs. 

The front and back are distinct, joined by elk-skin cords at the sides. A section 
of short slats, 8 in number, is placed in front of the throat, and a similar row, 7 in 
number, protects the back of the neck. The armor is held in place by a broad 
band of elk skin over the right shoulder, and fastened on the left side by a loop and 
thong. A toggle on the left side of the collar in front was probably for suspension 
of the quiver. Height, 21^ inches ; width, 20 inches. (Cat. No. 9243, U. S.N.M. 
Tlingit Indians, Sitka, Alaska. Collected by Dr. A. H. Hoff, U. S. A.) 

Plates 7 and S, slat armor {hack and front). — Made of slats and rods of hard wood 
1^ to 1^ inches wide, five-sixteenths inch thick, woven together by means of fine 
sinew cord so as to admit of considerable flexibility. The rods and slats are pared 
down to form channels for the reception of the cord weaving. The front and back 
portions are woven separately, being connected by cords of leather on the left side 
and on the right side by a loop and toggle. The rods on the border of the rear of 
armor are neatly " toed in." The neck portions are made up of short slats and sewed 
on by means of a strip of rawhide 1^ inches wide. The shoulder supports are of 
very thick elk hide, the one on the right being fastened by a slash and toggle. 
Width of rear portion, 24 inches ; height, 20 inches ; width of front portion, 18 inches ; 
height, 19 inches. (Cat. No. 74437, U. S. N. M. Tlingit Indians, Sitka, Alaska. 
Collected by J. J. McLean.) 

Plate 9. — Wooden helmet secured to the head by straps fastened under the chin 
(figure in upper left corner) ; wooden mask or visor, side view, showing holes for 
eyes (middle figure) ; body airmor (lower left-hand figure) ; mask or visor, show- 
ing buckle, which is held in the teeth to keep the visor in place (Cat. No. 74343, 
U.S.N.M.), Tlingit, (lower right-hand figure) ; sketch showing the method of wearing 
the armor; (upper right-hand corner). 



Report of National Museum, 1893— HouRh 



Plate 6. 





Tlingit Slat Armor. 

Cat. No. 9243, U. S. N. :\I. 

Fip:. 1. Front view. 
Fig. -2. Back view. 



Report of National Museum 1893 — Hough 



Plate 7. 









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Tlingit Slat and Rod Armor. 
Cat. No. 74437. U. S. X. M. 
Front view. 



Report of National Museum, 1893.— Hougn 



Plate 8. 




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Tlingit Slat and Rod Armor. 

Cat. No. 7443?, U. S. N. M. 
Back view. 



Report of National Museurn, 1893. -Hough. 



Plate 9. 








Tlingit Helmets and Slat Arwor. 



PRIMITIVE AMERICAN ARMOR. 637 

As representiitive of the iiortliwesterii coast culture tlic Tlin^itsaud 
Haidas are most prominent. Captain Cook noticed that — 

They iucase aliuost the entire body in a wooden or leathern armor.- They make a 
breast plate of wood and an arrow-proof coat of thin flexible strips bound with 
strings like a woman's stays. They wear helmets with curiously earvod visors.' 

A kind of jacket, or coat of mail, made of thin laths hound together with sinews 
which makes it quite flexible, though so close as not to admit an arrow or dart. t 

It seems, therefore, necessary to treat the Northwest Coast as one cul- 
ture area, where the arts of the ethnic units can scarcely be ditieren- 
tiated. A close study as marked out by Niblack and shown in the care- 
ful collections of Lieut. G. T. Emmons, U. S. Navy, may disentani^le 
the borrowings of the stocks of this area. 

There are 4 suits of this type in the Museo Arqueologico in Madrid. 
They were collected by the Malespina Expedition of 1791. The exact 
locality is not stated and an account of Malespina's exi)loration was 
not published, as far as I can learn. 

If one may judge by the Spanish names which have remained on tlie 
map, such as Malespina Island, Cape Muzon, Cordova Bay, and others, 
the Malespina Exi)edition explored the north side of Dixon Entrance 
and came in contact with the Haidas as well as the Tlingits. Although 
there is some i)robability of these armors being flaidan, I incline to 
believe them to beTlingit. 

During the course of this study, one piece of armor of unknown 
function in the National collection was found to be a greave, or armor 
for the lower leg (pi. 10). | This unique piece discloses the hitherto 
unnoticed fact that the Northwest Coast warriors were more completely 
armed than had been imagined. This greave leads to the inference 
that a similar protection was extended to the ux:)per legs and the arms. 
With heavy wooden helmet, the slat coat and armor for the limbs, we 
have a picture of an Alaskan warrior armed cap-a-pie. In no way was' 
this armor inferior to that employed in ancient or feudal times or at a 
late period among the Japanese. The resemblance of the specimen in 
question to the Japanese greave is striking. 

It is made up of 12 slightly tapering hard wood slats and 8 rods 
woven together with sinew cord. The portion not covered with 
weaving bears a totemic painting. When curved around the leg, 



* Bancroft, oj). cit. 1, p. 105. 

tCook, Capt. .James, Third Voyage, Vol. ii, p. 372. 

t Description of Plate 10. — Greave made np of 12 slightly tapering hard wood slata 
and 8 rods woven together with twisted sinew cord. The weaving is diversified in 
the central portion by carrying th<' threads in pairs alternately over the rods. The 
portion not covered with weaving bears a totemic painting. When the greave ia 
curved around the calf of the leg, the hollowed out portions, which are also beveled, 
accommodate the instep and knee joint. Tied at the front with thongs. The holes 
along the upper edge are probably for attaching the greave to the armor for the 
upper leg. Length, 15 inches ; width of ujiper edge, 17^ inches ; width of lower edge, 
16i inches. (Cat. No. 74438, U. S. N. M. Tlingit Indians, Alaska. Collected by J. J. 
McLean. 



638 EEPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1893. 



the hollowed out portions accommodate the instep and knee joint. It 
was secured by thongs and probably with a band or garter. The holes 
aloDg the upper edge are probably for attaching the greave to the 
cuissard. 

Charlevoix, in speaking of the Iroquois, says : 

They had even formerly a kind of mail for the arms and thighs made of the same 
material,* i. e., small pliable sticks pretty well wrought. + 

The resemblance between the culture of the west and east coasts of 
North America is striking in other instances. 

Many of the figures in the Mexican codices and sculptures wear a 
covering around the calf of the leg, which may be the greave. In the 
sculptures from Yucatan this greave or legging seems to be of horizontal 
bands and square plates. 

The rod type of armor of the western area is well represented by 
specimens in the National Museum. All the examples extant range 
from Sitka to northern California in a region comparatively lately 
explored. 

The rod and slat types are mixed; in the method of twining together 
the elements they are identical. In some localities the broad band of 
rods is alone found, while among the Tlingits, or around Sitka, occur 
rod armor, slat armor, and a combination of both types in the same 
piece, as well as skin armor. 

In form the Aleut armor, instead of following the Eskimo type, 
belongs with the rod type of the Indians. The perforation of the 
rods, however, and the method of lashing, show Eskimo handiwork. 
D'Orbigny says: ^'Les armes defensives consistaient en une cotte de 
joncs tresses qui leur couvrait tout le corps." f 

Dr. W. H. Dall, during his exploration of the caves of the Aleutian 
Islands, found the armor figured in pis. 11 and 12.§ ^^ Under the 

* Charlevoix, F. X. de, Vol. i, p. 338, Lond., 1761. 

ild., Letters to the Duchess of Lesdiguieres, p. 143, Lond., 1763. 

I D'Orbigny, Voyages, p. 579. 

§ DESCRIPTION OF PLATES 11 AND 12. 

Plate 11, rod armor. — Made up of two series of cedar rods, one-half inch in diame- 
ter and different lengths, painted red. The lower series containing 68 rods; the 
upper series, two side sections of 10 rods and a curved piece each, and a central sec- 
tion containing 22 rods with curved side pieces. The rods are perforated through 
either eud and held in series' by a sewing of finely plaited sinew cord, the cord being 
brought through the hole in the first rod, leaving two long ends. These are brought 
past each other from opposite sides through the hole in the next rod, and so forth. 
The sections are joined by a rickrack lashing, engaging with the horizontal sewing. 
The rods are perforated from side to side and a thin rod of whalebone drawn 
through, rendering the armor flexible. At the lower and upper edges of the armor 
the ends of the rods are chamfered. There are two wooden toggles on the right side. 

Plate 12, rod armor. — Same coat as shown in pi. 11, doubled together, showing the 
position upon the body in wearing the armor. This view shows also a portion of 
the inner side and the projecting ends of the whalebone binding strip which has 
been broken. Width, 40 inches; height, 25 inches. (Cat. No. 17249, U.S.N.M. 
From a burial cave in the Island of Amaknak. Collected by E. Hennig.) 



Report of National Mjseum, 1893 —Hough. 



Plate 10. 







Reoort of National Museum, 1893 —Hough 



Plate 11 




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Prehistoric Aleutian Rod Armor. 

Cat. No. 17-i4'J, U. S. N. M. 



Report of National iVIuseum, 1893. — Houe;h, 



Plate 12. 




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PRIMITIVE AMERICAN ARMOR. 



639 



net WHS inserted ii piece ot wooden body armor (17240) composed nf 
small, round rods of proper size, united by sinew cords and with nicely 
carved wooden i)ieees about the armhok's. This is tlie only piece of 
this abori«;inal armor known to be in existence. It was fasti'iied beliind 
with two loops of sinew, into wliich wooden buttons were inserted. The 
small rods of which it is composed were about three-fourths ot an inch 
iu diameter, painted red. 

*' The armor, slight as it was, nuist have been a tolerably good pro- 
tection against the boue and stone arrowheails of the natives."* 

In the uortheru portion of this area, except in the Aleutian Islands, 




Fig. 4. 

SHOWING DETAIL OF WEAVING ROD AND SLAT AKMoK oK llll. NoRTIIWKST (OAST. 



the rod armor is an oblong band composed of i)eeled rods of uniform 
length and diameter held in series by bands of weaving (jd. 13). t 
• Lieut. Niblack says, in describing this armor, that — 

The threads are sometimes single and .sometimes in pairs, and are made to pass 
over and under the rods in pairs, but in such manner that the overlai>ping.s alter- 
nate from one row to the next. This is shown in detail in fig. 4, where la and 

^Dall, W. H., Remains of Later Prehistoric Man in the Caves of the Aleutian 
Islands, p. 18, Smithtiouian Contrib. to Knowledge. No. 318. 

tDESCRirTIOX OF I'LA T?-: 13. 

Bod armor. — Composed of 12 peeled rods of uniform length and diameter, held in 
vertical series by alternate bauds of weaving of woolen and sinew cord. The rods 
are bunched iu the middle of the band. The ends of the rods are neatly hollowed 
out, forming cup cavities, and there arc 4 eijuidistaiit vertical bands of red paint. 
This band was probably worn with a skin coat, both specimens having been secured 
froui the same native. There appears to be no device to prevent the rod band slip- 
ping down. Width, 30 inches ; height, 23,^ inches. (Cat. No. 1G8I58, U.S.N.M. Taku 
Indians'., southeastern Alaska. Collected by Herbert (J. Ogden.) 



640 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1893. 

16 represent the part of one cord, and 2a and 2b represent those of another. The 
view represents the upper left-hand corner of the weaving and two upper threads, 
showing 7 rods in both plan and section. As stated, this method of running the 
cords or twine is varied by occasionally running them in pairs. * 

Bands of rods of this character are intended to be worn under or 
over the skin armor, encircling the body below the armpits, and there 
are no shoulder straps to prevent the armor slipping down over the hips. 

To the southward the rod band assumes a more effective form. It is 
cut out for the arms and has shoulder straps. Just where this form 
begins it is not possible to say with exactness, probably with the 
Tinne. The specimens are from the Shastas, Hupas, and Klamaths of 
Oregon and California (pis. 14 and 15). t 

The following references may be of interest: 

Western Tinne: "While on the warpath they also wore a kind of 
armor or cuirass consisting of dried sticks of the same kind of wood, 
Amelaneliier alnifolia^ arranged in parallel order and kept together 
with babiche lines interlaced in several places.f 

The Ohinooks wear ''a kind of vest, made of small round sticks of 
the size and shape of arrows 12 inches long; they are laid side by side, 
and then sewed together and fixed on the body like a waistcoat."§ 



* The Indians of the Northwest Coast, Niblack, A. P. Report of Smithsonian Inst., 
Part II, 1888, p. 269. 

•t DESCRIPTION OF PLATES 14 AND 15. 

Flate 14, rod armor. — Made of 74 strips of wood formed by splitting branches, 
woven with native cord of wild hemp. The checkered portion in black is woven 
with cord made of human hair. Short rods are worked in below the armpits. All 
the rods are split at either end, the finishing cords drawn into the split to secure 
the weaving. In addition the armor is bound on the upper and lower edges with 
skin sewed with sinew. The shoulder straps are of otter ( ?) fur. The surface of the 
armor shows 4 horizontal bands of red paint. Width, 38 inches; height, 30 inches. 
(Cat. No. 2928, U. S. N. M. Shasta Indians, northern California and Oregon. Col- 
lected by Lieut. G. T. Emmons, U. S. N.) 

Plate 15, jig. 1, rod armor (Klnig-klicyst-e-cue-it-ivul). — Made of 118 peeled rods, 
woven, together with native twine, bound with buckskin on upper and lower edges 
and armholes. Shoulder straps of leather ; 6 horizontal stripes of red cord cross 
the front of the coat. " It is tied across the breast from left to right. The red lines 
denote the number of enemies slain or captives taken; also the rank of the wearer. 
This class of armor was in common use among the Natanos and Kennucks before the 
introduction of firearms, but it is now obsolete, nearly. This is the only complete 
suit that Lieut. Ray could obtain. ^^ (The Ray Collection, Smithson. Rept., 1886, 
1, p. 230.) Width, 41 inches ; height, 21 inches. (Cat. No. 126909, U. S. N. M. Huap 
Indians, California. Collected by Capt. P. H. Ray, U. S, A.) 

Plate 15, Jig. 2, rod armor (Tal-luck). — Modern. Made up of 44 oval rods of pinj 
wood. The cord is of native hemp and cords made from sisal, the latter probably 
derived from ropes. The weaving is diversified by using cords colored red and yel- 
low; bound with buckskin painted red; shoulder straps of buckskin; tying straps 
at the sides. Width, 38 inches ; height, 21 inches. (Cat. No. 2094, U. S. N. M. Kla- 
math Indians, Oregon. Collected by L. S, Dyar.) 

tMorice, A. G., the Western Dends. Proc. Canad. Inst., Vol. xxv, 1889, p. 140. 

§ Ross, Alexander, adventures, etc., on the Oregon and Columbia rivers, Lond., 
1849, p. 89. 



Report of National Museum, 1893.— Hough. 



Plate 13. 




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Report of National Museum, 1893 — Hough. 



Plate 14. 




Shasta Rod Coat. 

Cat. No. 2928, U. S. X. 'SI. 



Report of National Museum, 1893 — Hough. 



Plate 15. 





Rod Coats. 

Fig. 1. Hupa rod armor. Cat. No. VXmn U. S. X M 
Fig:. ~*. Klaniatli rod armor. Cat. No. 2\)0i. U. S. N. M. 



I 



PRIMITIVE AMERICAN ARMOR. G41 

Among the Hiipas " tliere is another kind of armor miulo of wattlivs 
and twine, wov^en and bonnd with buckskin. This is worn in battle 
to protect the body; it is tied across tiie breast from left to ii;::1it. Tlie 
red lines denote tlie number of enemies slain or captives taken; also 
the rank of the wearer. This class of armor was in coiiiiuon use auKMig 
the Natano and Keniick Indians before the introduction of lirearms, 
but it is now nearly obsolete."* 

The rod coats were put on like a vest and were tied in bout. The 
rear portion, being* a little longer, i^rotected the back (»f the neck. 

On the western slopes of the Rocky Mountains and on t he Great Plains 
the natural defensive protection of the great laud and sea mammals, 
transferred by man to his own body, becomes, in turn, his eliicieut armor. 

The skins of the elk and moose on the northwest coast and the bison 
in the interior to the south furnish excellent material tor defensive 
clothing. These skins are invariably tanned to render them flexible, 
and are often eoated with glue and sand over certain portions. 

Father Morice, in his clear description of the process, says: 

Another sort of armor, indigenous to the Dono nation, was the pcoesta (wlieroiu 
one sits). This h"".'! the form of a sleeveless tunic falling to the knees, so that it 
afiorcU'd protection to the whole body save the head — in hard liglits theD«^nes invari- 
ably shot kneelinj^. The armor or cuirass was of moose skin, which, wlien sewed 
according to the i)roper pattern, was soaked in water, then repeatedly rubbe<l on the 
sandy shores of a stream or lake and dried with the sand and small pel)bl('8 adhering 
thereto, after which it was thoroughly eoated with a species of very tenacious glue, 
the principal ingredient of which was boiled isinglass, obtained from the sturgeon. 
Being again, before drying, subjected to a thorough rubbing over sand, itrcceiveda 
new coating of the aforesaid glue. When this process had been repeated three or four 
times, it formed an armor perfectly invulnerable to arrows over the parts which were 
thus protected.! 

The skin coats were always made in one piece folded over, sewed above 
the shoulders, leavingan orifice for the head and with ahole cutout of the 
left side for the left arm, the right side of the garment remaining open. 
The skin was often doubled, but more fre(|ueutly the coat was reinforced 
with pieces of thick hide. Sometimes shoulder guards were addel. 

It will be seen that the leather coats from Sitka are short and follow 
the type of slat armor. This will be noticed in the "swallowtail" for 
the ])rotection of the pubic region, or which assumes this shape by the 
cutting away of portions of the skirt over the groins (pis. Itl and 17). t 

Sometimes a slash was made over the thigh and in front of the thix)at. 

* Mason, O. T., The Ray Collection, Rep. Smithsonian Instituticm, ISHH. p. 230. 

t Morice, A. G., The Western Denes, Proc. Canad. Inst., Vol. xxv (Oct., 1889), p. 110. 

X DESCRIPTION OF PLATES 16 AND 17. 

Plate 16, Fig 1, skin armor. — Made of two thicknesses of caribou hide, scarfed 
rregularly to secure tiexibility. Sewed around the border with rawhide. Padded 
in the truncated portion with heavy pieces of hide. The garment has been patched 
at the edges eaten away by rats. Formerly worn as an undergarment for protection 
against daggers, spears, and arrows. Outside was worn a rod band as a further pro- 
tection. This specimen is very ancient and primitive, worn before the iutroductioa 

H. Mis. 184, pt. 2 41 



642 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1893. 

The shoulder guards were worked oufc of the hide at the left arm- 
hole, or added over one or both shoulders. On the front are one or two 
loops of buckskin, probably for the attachment of the bow and quiver 
or dagger. 

On the right side the armor was usually fringed, and in some cases 
a band of lighter skin was sewed along the same side. This band was 
often decorated. 

To the southward the coat seems to become longer and simpler in 
outline (pis. 18, 19). * 

of fire arms. Width, 21 inches; length, 28 inches. (Cat. No. 130587, U.S.N. M. Tlingit 
Indians, Alaska. Lent by Max B. Richardson.) 

Fig 2, shin armor. — Made of tanned hide; two thicknesses; sewed along the upper 
edge. The ^'swallowtail" portion is reinforced with two extra thicknesses, making 
four in all. The coat is very heavy. The sewing is done with sinew. Width, 25 
inches; height, 33 inches. (Cat. No. 60239, U.S.N.M. Tlingit Indians, Alaska. Col- 
lected by J. J. McLean.) 

Plate 17, sliin armor. — Made of one piece of heavy elk skin apparently smoke- 
tanned, lined inside with another piece sewed around the lower portion. Ample 
cuts for arm holes. Over the left shoulder is fastened an epaiiliere, made of a heavy 
piece of folded hide. For convenience in putting on or off the armor, the band over 
the right shoulder is buttoned over a wooden toggle. Fastened with thongs on the 
right side. Two loops in front are probably for the bow. Width, 20^ inches ; height, 
29 inches. (Cat. No. 60240, U.S.N.M. Tlingit Indians, Alaska. Collected by J. J. 
McLean.) 

*DESCKIPTION OF PLATES 18 AND 19. 

Plate 18, Fig. 1, sMn armor. — Front view. Made of very heavy hide, with cor- 
rugated appearance, single thickness. A strip of lighter leather, cut from a 
painted garment, has been sewed to the left side. A double shoulder protector has 
been sewed to the left side of the neck opening, and the skin has been cut and 
enlarged by gussets to protect the right shoulder. A slit cut in the skirt of the coat 
admits of free movemeat of the knee. The fringe is wrapped with strips of grass, 
tied, by thongs, on the left side . 

Fig. 2, skin armor. — Rear view of armor. Curiously, this armor must have been 
worn by a left-handed man, as it is put on in the reverse of the other coats described. 
Width, 30 inches ; height, 37i inches. (Cat. No. 130588, U.S.N.M. Alaska. Lent by 
Max B. Richardson.) 

Plate 19, Fig. 1, shin armor. — Made of tanned caribou skin folded in the usual way 
and reinforced. Fringed on the right side. The coat is longer than those worn to the 
North. The leather has apparently been stiffened with glue. The feature of this 
coat is that two very heavy pieces of hide go over the shoulders and form a slit in 
front of the neck. Tiie buckskin loops in front are for the attachment of the quiver. 
Width, 32 inches; height, 37 inches. (Cat. No. 46464, U.S.N.M. Chilcat Indians, 
Alaska. Collected by Dr. T. H. Bean.) 

Fig. 2, shin armor. — Made of thick tanned elk or moose skin folded twice into 
oblong form like a sheet of note paper. Sewed over the shoulders and strengthened 
inside by hinge pieces. Open along right side the edges cut into coarse fringe. A 
short slit down left side below the shoulder leaves a passage for the left arm. 
About midway near the right side is fastened a wooden toggle, by which, probably, 
was susj^ended the dagger. The front of the coat is discolored and dented as though 
an attempt had been made to render the leather more dense by hammering. The 
leather has perhaps also been treated with glue, as described bj Father Morice among 
the Tinn6. Inside the armor at the back is a finely drawn and painted totem in a 
circle 10^ inches in diameter. Width, 26 inches ; height, 36 inches. (Cat. No. 168159, 
U.S.N.M. Taku Indians, Southeastern Alaska. Collected by Herbert G. Ogden.) 



.Report of National Museum 1893. -Hough. 



Plate 16. 




J^^ 







Report of National Museum 1893 — Hougn 



Plate 17. 




Alaskan Skin Armor with Shoulder Guards. 
Cat. No ()()240, U. S. N M. 



Report of National Museum, 1893.— Hough 



Plate 18. 




Reoort of National Museum 1P93 — Houch 



Plate 19. 




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PRIMITIVE AMERICAN ARMOR. 643 

The loii«^- coat culiiiiuates aiiioiij^ the Hiipas and Khiinaths, althoii<(]i 
some Ahiskan tribes wore loiijj^ coats identical witli the ceremonial 
coats (pi. 20).* 

Two modern armors from Sitka, in form of a waistcoat, are curious. 
Both open in front and are fastened by lappets and brass buttons of 
English manufacture. One is plated over the entire front and a i)or- 
tion of the back with Chinese coins, like the i)enny armor of Europe; 
the other is ])laiu. The derivation of these coins is not known, but the 
collector supposes the work to be that of Chukchis. These are cur- 
rent Chinese coins like those brought to this country by the Chinese 
to be used in gambling. There are a few Japanese coins on this coat. 
The aruKu* was collected in 1870 (pi. 21). t 

Dccordtion of the war armor was infreciuent. The fringe has been 
mentioned. Applied bands of (piill work on leather fringe have been 
observ^ed. The slat armor often bore totemic devices, and the rod 
armor was diversified by bands of weaving of ditferent colored cords 
or by painted bands. In the interior of two coats from southern 
Alaska (Takus and Tlingits) are elaborate colored totemic paintings. 
Since the painting is not seen, it can not be for ornament. lY'rha])S it 
is a fetichistic protection. 

Two very heavy, long, wide skin coats from the Korthwest Coast in 

* DESCRIPTION OK I'LATE 20. 

Skin armor (Cue it wttl). — Made of a large elk skiu, tauiied, folded on itself. The 
outer portion falls as a skirt to the ankles, while the inner portion reaches only to 
the knees, and the hard neck portion of the hide comes in front and acts as a plastron 
to protect the belly and thighs. Joined over the shoulders by leather straps worked 
through a series of slashes. Zigzag cut for the left arm. Fringed at the side and 
tying thongs on the right. The front and back decorated with cusps, dots, circles, 
and lines in red and blue jiaint. It is worn so as to cover the left side, with the^ 
left arm through the slit, the head through the opening. The suit has been worn 
by several generations and in some of the modern battles with the whites, in which 
the bullet nuirks were received. There are also arrow cuts which were received in 
battle. The cusps and triangular figures are intended to denote the number of ene- 
mies slain and captives taken. (See "The Ray Collection," Report of the Smith- 
sonian Institution, 1886, 1, p. 205.) AVidth, 26 inches; height, 47 inches (Cat. No. 
126908, U.S.N. M. llupa Indians, California. Collected by Capt. P. H. Kay, U. S. A.; 

t DESCRIPTION OF I'LATE 21. 

Fig. 1, skin armor. — Made of three layers of tanned hi<le, hardened. Two layers 
are formed by folding and the third is inserted between thern. In general shape it 
is that of a waistcoat, with collar sewed on with thongs, but not formed of pieces 
like the similar armor. Fastened in front with 4 lappets and sailors' buttons of 
brass. On the right side is a loo]) of buckskin, i)robably for the dagger. Height, 
23 inches. (Cat. Xo. 18927, U.S.X.M, Sitka, Alaska. Collected by James G. Swan.) 

Fig. 2, skin armor. — Made of thick tanned hide in imitation of an old-fashioned 
waistcoat, the resemblance being exact in particulars of cut and sewing. Plated 
over the front and shoulder of the back with Chinese coins sewed on with sinew 
cord. Four lapx)ets for fastening in front with brass buttons of English manufac- 
ture. Dr. Hoff believes this coat to be the work of Chukchis. Height, 25^ inches. 
(Cat. No. 9284, U.S.X.M. Sitka, Alaska. Collected by Dr. A. H. Hoff, U. S. A.) 



644 



REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1893. 



the national collection are of problematic purpose. They were sent in 
as armor by the collector, and from the thickness, weight, and other 
points are evidently defensive. There is, however, no armhole on the 
left side nor projection for the shoulder. In one suit the neck opening 

is large and is surrounded with a 
leather-covered collar made of short 
wooden slats, slightly interlocking, 
held together with a cord twining. 
In the other suit the collar is of 
hide (pi. 22).* 

If these objects are defensive they 
could scarcely be used by a man on 
all fours for stalking, as they are 
too wide aud long, and the arms 
would be completely hampered. 
They would be most useful as armor 
for some animal. While one tribe-at 
least (the Shoshoiies of the Upper 
Missouri) is known to have protected 
their horses with armor,t the North- 
west Coast tribes did not have 
horses. A further suggestion is 
that they were ceremonial. 

These objects are noticed here 
with the view of ascertaining their 
function. 

Padded armor, which was used 
in Mexico and Central America, is^ 
the remaining type. No specimens^ 
of Mexican padded armor are extant. 
In some of the sculptures quilted 
armor is perhaps represented by a^ 
groundwork of small squares. A 
search of the codices and an examina- 
tion of the sculptures will doubtless throw much light upon this subjects 




Fig. 5. 

ANCIENT KOREAN COTTON AKMOR. 

Cat. No. 128344, U.S.N-.M. Korea. Deposited by 
Dr. G. Brown Goode. 



* DESCRIPTION OF PLATE 22, 

Fig 1, skin rohe. — Of liide, rouglily curried in tanning. The collar is a slight cut 
on the left side which does not penetrate the inner fold. A painted, fringed band 
lias been neatly sewn to the right side. On the inside is an elaborate totemic paint- 
ing. Length, 52 inches; width, 36 inches. Northwest coast. 

Fig 2, sMn rohe. — Made of a large tanned elk, or caribou, hide, doubled, the short 
fold being inside. A collar composed of short interlocking slats of wood, woven 
together with cord in the manner of the slat armor and covered with leather, is^ 
sewed to the neck. Fringed at the sides. Four bands of fringed buckskin decorated 
Avith colored grass are sewed on one side. Length, 54 inches; width, 32 inches^ 
(Cat. No. 74440, U.S.N.M. Alaska. Collected by J. J. McLean.) 

tSee page 646. 



Report of National Museum. 1893 — Hnutjh 



Plate 20. 




HuPA Elk-skin Armor. 
Cat. No. 126908, U. 8. N. 31. 



Report of National M'lS'-Mrin '«^^ M-iah 



Plate 21 





Report of Nat'Onal Museum 1893. -Hough. 



Plate 22. 






■^ I,,—,,,,, 




\ J., i „ -^ .■■.>, 

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( ^-v 






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O 



PRIMITIVE AMERICAN ARMOR. G45 

Padded armor has been of widespread adoption. In Mongolian 
countries it survived to a recent date. Tlie Korean armor (iig. o*) 
will give an idea of this type. 

Prescott says, in reference to the Peruvian armor : 

Men's bodies were protected by casques made eitber of wood oi the SAins of wild 
animals, and sometimes ricbly decorated witb metal and with precious stones sur- 
mounted by the brilliant plumage of the tropical birds. * * * Men's defensive 
armor consisted of a shield, or buckler, and a close tunic of quilted cotton, in the 
same manner as with the Mexicans. t 

Probabl}' not very different from the cuirass of hide of the northern 
tribes. 

Hansard tells us the Spaniards invented felt covering for their horses 
as a protection against Floridau arrows. | He also states that — 

The Spaniards, who fight on horseback with the Indians of those provinces, cany 
a doublet well lined with cotton wool. $ 

It maj^ be surmised that the Spaniards introduced this style of 
armor both into Mexico and Peru. 
Dr. Brinton, in his "American liace,"saysoftheTarascosofMichoacan: 

Nowhere else do we find such complete defensive armor. It consisted of helmet, 
body pieces, and greaves for the legs and arms, all of wood, covered neatly with 
copper or gold plates, so well done that the pieces looked as if they were of solid 
metal. 

The following excerpts, arranged geographically, describing armor 
from other tribes not represented by extant specimens, are introduced 
here to show the range of armor in America. 

The Nass Indians of the Tsimshian stock follow the other stocks on 
the Northwest Coast in that — 

Their war garments were formed of 2 3, or more folds of the strongest hides of 
the land animals they were able to procure. In the center was a hole sufficient. to 
admit the head and left arm to pass through, the mode of wearing them being over 
the right shoulder and under the left arm. The left side of the garment is sewed 
up, but the right side remains open ; the body is, however, tolerably well protected, 

*This consists of a coat, helmet, and wide belt made up of many thicknesses of 
coarse cotton cloth covered with yellow stuff. The coat is made up of two wide 
flaps connected by a band which passes over the left shoulder. These Haps are cut 
out to fit the neck, and are tied at either side. A plastron of cloth is hung over the 
chest. The surface of portions of the coat is printed with Sanscrit dliarani, or 
prayers for victory. A belt resembling those worn by Ivoreau women at the present 
time, but much thicker, is tied around the waist. The helmet is padded, and is 
stiffened by four perpendicular bands of iron riveted through the cloth and termi- 
nating in a brass ball at the apex. Visor, small; wide and heavj- epaules, one at 
either side at the back. The helmet has also Sanscrit dharani written upon it. 
Length of coat, 34 inches; width, 30 inches; length of belt, 54 inches; width, 11 
inches; height of helmet, 12 inches. (Cat. No. 128344 U. S. N. M. Korea. Deposited 
by Dr. G. Brown Goode ) 

t Prescott, Conquest of Peru, 1, p. 67. 

t Hansard, History of Archery, p. 23. 

$Benzoni, History of the New World, Hakluyt Soc, p. 8. 



646 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1893. 

and both arms are left at liberty for action. As a further security, on the part which 
covers the breast they sometimes fix on the inside thin laths of wood.* 

On Vancouver Island the Nootkas make use of — 

A thick tanned leather mantle, doubled, and appears to be the skin of an elk or 
buffalo. This is so contrived as to cover the breast quite up to the throat, part of it 
falling down to the heels. This garment is sometimes very curiously painted, and 
is not only strong enough to resist, but, as we understand from them, spears could 
not penetrate it. So it may be considered their complete defensive armor, t 

The Ohinooks of the Oohimbia Eiver use skin and rod armor. Eoss 
says, in reference to the former, their war garments are of two kinds; 
one is termed clemal, of elk skin, dressed and worked to the thickness 
of nearly half an inch, and arrow proof. The clemal nearly covers the 
whole body, with an opening left on the right side to allow the arm free 
action in combat. (Ross, Alex., Advent., etc., on the Oregon or Colum- 
bia River. Lond., 1849, p. 89.) 

Franchere says of the Columbian River tribes : 

For defensive armor they wear a cassock or tunic of elk skin, double, descending 
to the ankles, with holes for the arms. It is impenetrable for their arrows, which 
can not pierce two thicknesses of leather; and as their heads are also covered with 
a sort of helmet, the neck is almost the only part in which they can be wounded. 
They have another kind of corselet made like the corsets of our ladies, of splinters 
of hard wood interlaced with nettle twine. The warriors who wear this curious 
dress do not use the tunic of elk skin. He is consequently less protected, but a good 
deal more free, the said tunic being very heavy and very stiff, t 

Passing eastward, Lewis and Clarke, when speaking of the Shoshoni 
of the Rocky Mountains, at the head of the Missouri River, remark: 

They have a kind of armor, something like a coat of mail, which is formed by a 
great many folds of dressed antelope skins, united by means of a mixture of glue 
and sand. With this they cover their own bodies and those of their horses, and find 
it impervious to the arrow. § 

Mr. Dorsey informs me that there is reason to believe that the Pawni 
formerly employed a kind of hide cuirass and a defensive helmet, and 
as Da Pratz states that the Padoucas (Comanches) ''cover their horses 
with dressed leather (probably bison hide), hanging down quite round, 
which secures them from darts," it is perhaps permissible to infer that 
their riders were protected in the same way. 

In that wonderful origin-epic of the Kavajoes the Indian singer chants 
to Dr. Matthews of " suits of armor made of several layers of buckskin. 
The warriors in those days wore such armor, but they wear it no 
longer." || 

"^Vancouver, Voyage, Vol. ii., p. 339. 

t Cook's Voy., Vol. ii., p. 246. 

t Franchere, Gabriel, Narrative of a Voyage to the Northwest Coast of America. 
New York, 1854, p. 253. 

§ Lewis and Clarke, Allen ed.. Vol. i, 425, 1814. 

II Matthews, Washington, The Mountain Chant. Annual Repoit of the Bureau of 
Ethnology, 1883-'84, p. 73. 



PRIMITIVE AMERICAN ARMOR. 647 

Among the Pueblo tribes '' they also wore cuirasses of elk or bison 
skin, or of padded cotton and yucca, and carried round shields of 
basketry of heavily and ch)sely netted cotton, or of thick rawhide, 
symbolically painted." * 

Coming to the great civilizations of ancient Mexico, Bancroft says of 
the Xahua Indians of Mexico: 

Tlie vhimalli, or Mexicau shield, was made of various niatorials and of divers 
forms, soiuetiuies rounded and aometiniea oval; sometimes r()iind«Ml on the lower side. 
It was oomuiouly constructed of llexible bamboo canes bound firmly to<^ether and 
covered with hide. The face of the shield was ornamented according to the r;iuk 
and taste of the wt^arer; that of a noble was generally covered with thin i)lat('8 of 
gold, with a heavy boss in the center. In Tabasco and along the coast tortoise shells 
inlaid with gold, silver, or copper were commonly used as shields. Reeds, grass, hides, 
or 'ne(iuen cloth, coated with india rubber, served to protect an Aztec common soldier. 
Some shields were of an ordinary size; others were intended to cover the entire body, 
and were constructed so that when not in use they could be folded up and carried 
under the arm. The body armor of the nobles and higher grades of warriors con- 
sisted of a breastplate made of ([uilted cotton, one or two fingers in thickness, called 
*'ichcahuipilli." Over this was a thick cotton coat which covered part of the arms 
and thighs, made in one piece, fastened behind and decorated with feathers of the 
color of the company's uniform. The cotton armor was completely arrow proof. 
Arm and leg guards made of wood, covered with leather or gold plates and trimmed 
with feathers, and of the same material, shaped and painted to represent the head of 
a tiger, serpent, or monster with mouth open and teeth bared, complete the 
defensive armor, t 

Again, in treating of theToltecs, Yeytia relates: 

The body armor worn by the principal warriors was made of double cloth padded 
with cotton. It differed from that of th(^ Aztecs, reaching down the ankles, and was 
worn over a thin Avhite tunic. The private soldier painted the upper part of the 
body to represent armor, but from the waist to the thighs they wore short drawers, 
and over them fastened around the waist a kind of kilt that reached to the knee, 
and availed them somewhat for defense. Across the body was a sash made of 
feathers that passed from the right shoulder to the left side of the waist. t ^ 

Cotton-i^added armor seems to have been the principal type used in 
Mexico. Among the Mayas of Mexico — 

In addition to shields the Mayas had for defensive armor garments of thickly- 
quilted cotton, calle<l escaupUcs, which covered the body down to the lower part of 
the thigh, and were considered impervious to arrows. '^^ 

There are a few references among the Isthmian tribes of the use of 
armor where the skin and rod types persist. Gabb says that the Bri 
Bris and Tiribis, Costa Rica, use '' an iron-headed lance with shaft 
barely 4 feet long. Round shields were carried on the arm, made of 
the thickest part of the hide of the tapir." || 

* Extract from article "Pueblos," by F. H. Gushing, to be published in Johnson's 
CyclopcPdia. 
+ Bancroft, H. H., Native Races of the Pacific States, Vol. ii., p. 407. 
t Veytia, Hist. Ant. Mej., Tom. i, pp. 289-90. 
$ Bancroft, op. cit., i, p. 655. 
II Gabb, A. M., Indians of Gosta Rica, p. 516, Proc. Am. Philos. See, Aug. 20, 1875. 



648 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1893. 

The Mosquito Indians of Honduras also employed armor. Bancroft 
says: 

Armor is made of plaited reeds covered with tiger skins aud ornamented with 
feathers; besides this they employ a breastplate of twisted cotton.'* 

Entering the continent of South America we find that — 

The Abipones are unacquainted with shields and targets, but they cover greatest 
part of their bodies with a sort of defense made of an undressed anta's hide, a tiger 
skin being sewed either in the in or out side; it is open in the middle, that the head 
may come through, and extended on each side as far as the elbows and middle; it is 
impenetrable to common arrows, but not to spears and bullets. t 

In the vast contiueut of South America there are only scattering 
references to the use of armor. In the southern extremity, where the 
phase of life assumes a resemblance to that of our North American 
tribes, we find well-known forms of armor. The cavalry of the Arau- 
canians is ''armed with swords and lances; formerly used bows and 
slings. The soldiers are not clothed in uniform, according to the 
European custom, but all wear beneath their usual dress cuirasses of 
leather, hardened by a peculiar mode of dressing; their shields and 
helmets are also made of the same material." | 

The Patagonians also wear a helmet with coat of mail, made of sev- 
eral folds of hide, and have a shield of bull's hide for use on foot.§ 
Their weapons are bows, lances, bolas, and clubs. 

3. EASTERN AREA. 

There is sufficient historical evidence that the defensive weapons of 
the east coast were similar to those of the west coast. The lakes and 
rivers with short portages rendered communication easy across this 
vast distance, and i)oints out a great line of migration both of peoples 
and inventions. This is shown by the following reference: 

Some sixty or seventy years ago a party of Iroquois, having crossed the Rocky 
Mountains, reached L. Tath^in two wooden canoes, which at once excited the covet- 
ousness of a band of Carriers, who killed the strangers for the sake of their canoes. 
These having been brought here (Stuart's Lake) served as models for the building of 
the first home-made "dugouts." || 

On the Atlantic slope there is abundant evidence to show that the 
Iroquois used body armor. Cartier (Hakluyt Yoy.,Yol. iii, London, 
1810), speaking of the Toudamani (Iroquois, probably Onondaga and 
Seneca) says: 

Also they showed us the manner and making of their armor; they are made of 
cordes and wood, finely and cunningly wrought together. 

* Bancroft, op. cit., i, p. 723. 

tWaitz. Anthropologic, Vol. ii, p. 361. 

^Thompson, G. A. Alcedo's Geogr. and Hist. Diet, of America. Lond., 1812, Vol. 
I, p. 407. 

§ Falkner. Description of Patagonia, p. 129. 

IIMorice, A. G. Proc. Canadian Inst., Oct., 1889, p. 131. The Carriers previously 
had birch-bark canoes. 



PRIMITIVE AMERICAN ARMOR. 649 

Lafitaii, whose famous work "Moeurs des Saiivages Ameriiiuaius," 
was i)ublislje(l in 1724, «^ives a more detailed account of the defensive 
armor of the tribes of the northeastern part of tlie present United States 
and of Canada, probablj^ referring chiefly to the Iroquois and Huron, 
with whom he was most familiar. He says (Vol. ii, p. 107): 

Thoir cuirasses were a tissue of wood, or of small sticks of reed cut of ])roportionato 
len<j;ths, strongly pressed against each other, woven and enlaced very neatly with 
small cords made of deer skin. They had cuissards and brassards (defensive cover- 
ings for the thighs and arms) of the same material. These cuirasses were i)roof 
against arrows armed with bone or stone, but not against those ujounted with iron. 

Charlevoix says of the Irocjuois: 

Most had no defensive weapon, but when they attac^ked any intreuchment, they 
covered their whole body with siuall, light boards. Some have a sort of cuirass or 
breastplate of small, pliable rings, very neatlj'^ worked. They had even formerly a 
kind of mail for the arms and thighs, made of the same materials. But as this kind 
of arnior was found not to be proof against firearms, they have renounced them 
without putting anything in their place.* 

Sagard says that the Hurons (Iroquois) had armor made of wood.t 
Champlain also describes the Iroquois' armor as made of wood and 
thread.f A plate in the same volume shows a warrior in armor. Wooden 
breastplates were worn.§ Copper breastplates have been found, like 
the gold breastplates of Peru. || One has been described as a plate of 
rich copper, in length a foot, in Avidth half a foot, for a breastplate. 1] 
Luciau Carr thinks these breastplates were for ornament, like those 
found in the Ohio mounds. The size of the New England breastplates, 
however, would render them a tolerable protection if used as a plastron* 

The only reference to eastern skin armor is of the Mohawks, who 
" wear seahorse skins and barks of trees made by their art as impene- 
trable, it is thought, as steel, wearing a headpiece of the same."** 

In reference to the Virginia Indians, Hariot says: , 

They are a people clothed with loose mantles made of Deere skins, and aprons of 
the same rounde about their middles; all e^se naked; of such a difference of statures 
only as wee in England; having no edge tooles or weapons of yron or Steele to offend 
ns withall, neither know they how to make any: those weapos that they have are 
onlie bowes made of Witch hazle, and arrowes of reeds; flat edged truncheons also 
of wood about a yard long, neither have they any thing to defend themselves but 
targets made of barcks; and some armours made of stickes wickered together with 
thread, tt 

* Charlevoix, P. F. X. de, Vol. i, 338. Lond., 1761. 

+ Voyage des Hurons, i, p. 144. 

t Champlain, i, p. 201. Paris, 1830. 

^ Hakluyt's Voyages, in, p. 305. 

II Breastplate of Gold. Peru. J. Anthrop. Inst., Vol. xviii. Xo. 3. Feb.. 1889. 

If Archer account, Griswold's Voyages, p. 75 in Vol. viii, 35 Mass. Historical Col- 
lection, 

**New England Prospect, p. 65. 

ttA brief and true report of the new-found land of Virginia, Thomas Hariot, 1585, 
De Bry, p. 24. 



650 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1893. 

I have not met with accounts of armor among the southern tribes, as 
the Muskoki group and others, but should hesitate to conclude that the 
idea of a defense for the body against arrows and spears, other than 
the shields, had not occurred to these progressive tribes. 

As a rule, the helmet is the most striking and prominent portion of 
body armor. 

War bonnets and various head coverings of the American aborigines, 
in many cases, may be classed with helmets. The function of the hel- 
met, after protection, is to adora the head, but an almost constant fea- 
ture is that of inspiring fear by grotesque or horrid construction. Thus 
the helmet is connected with the mask. 

There is a large series of Northwest Ooasfc helmets in the National 
Museum. (See pi. 0.) They are always of wood, fitting the head, 
carv^ed above to represent animals, grotesque faces, etc., always painted 
and sometimes carved with a rim like a hat. There is in the collection 
one helmet of wood covered with leather. Another fine helmet (Oat. No. 
168157) from the Taku Indians of southern Alaska is carved from solid 
wood in form of the Japanese type, called Kabuto or pot helmet. The 
front is finely worked out into the form of a grotesque face, with deep 
furrows across the nose, cheeks, and forehead, like New Zealand tattoo- 
ing, and painted green, red, and black. The ears at the side of the mask 
are accurately executed. The mask projects above the crown of the 
helmet and the upper ridge is studded with wooden pegs, which once 
held a fringe of sea-lion whiskers or bristles. Pegs are also seen on the 
chin and lips. The rear and rim of the helmet bear a totemic-painted 
carving in low relief. 

Through the inner edge of the rim of the helmet four slanting holes 
have been bored. These were probably for the passage of thongs 
which held a mask- visor before the face. 

Yisors were worn, carved to represent a face, or bowed visors ingen- 
iously made by cutting deep scarfs in the wood, allowing it to bend* 
On the interior of this style of visor was a projecting grommet which 
was taken between the teeth, holding the visor in place. Other mask- 
like visors were suspended from the helmet with cords and a couvre de 
nuqiie was often attached to the back. 

The only other survival of helmets in North America is among the 
Pueblo Indians, where they appear in ceremonies, in the form of mask 
helmets. 

A few historical notices have been given of the helmets used by the 
eastern Indians. 

A summary of the main conclusions which may be drawn from the 
foregoing paper will show : 

(1) That a majority of the American tribes had advanced to the stage 
where they made use of body armor — that is, were sedentary tribes. 

(2) This also implies differentiation of weapons rendering armor 
necessary, or the migration of the invention, or independent invention. 



PRIMITIVE AMERICAN ARMOR. 651 

The coat of thick skin which has appealed at all times and places 
may have arisen independently, following the i)rime idea of the con- 
comitance of weapon and antiweapon, but — 

(3) Plate armor in America is a clear case of the mi<^ration of inven- 
tion, its congeners having been traced from Japan northeastward 
through the Ainos, Giliaks, and Chukchis, across Bering Strait by the 
intervening islands to the western Eskimo. Here the armor spread 
southward from the narrowest part of the strait, passing into the slat 
armor of the Xorthwest Coast, which is possibly a development of the 
plate idea. The plate armor also may have spread to the eastern coast 
of North America. Hence it appears to be conclusive that plate armor 
in America had Asiatic origin. The date of this introduction is not 
considered. 



